As is true of all countries, Korea's geography was a major factor in shaping its history; geography also influenced the manner in which the inhabitants of the peninsula emerged as a people sharing the common feeling of being Koreans. The Korean Peninsula protrudes southward from the northeastern corner of the Asian continent and is surrounded on three sides by large expanses of water. Although Japan is not far from the southern tip of this landmass, in ancient times events on the peninsula were affected far more by the civilizations and political developments on the contiguous Asian continent than by those in Japan.
Because the Yalu and Tumen rivers have long been recognized as the border between Korea and China, it is easy to assume that these rivers have always constituted Korea's northern limits. But such was not the case in the ancient period. Neither of the rivers was considered to be sacrosanct by the ancient tribes that dotted the plains of Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. Because the rivers freeze in the winter, large armies were able to traverse them with ease. Even when the rivers were not frozen, armies equipped with iron tools could easily build ships to cross them.
The Korean people trace their origins to the founding of the state of Choson. Choson rose on the banks of the Taedong River in the northwestern corner of the peninsula and prospered as a civilization possessing a code of law and a bronze culture. The Choson people gradually extended their influence not only over other tribes in the vicinity, but also to the north, conquering most of the Liaodong Basin. However, the rising power of the feudal state of Yen in northern China (1122-225 B.C.) not only checked Choson's growth, but eventually pushed it back to the territory south of the Ch'ongch'on River, located midway between the Yalu and Taedong rivers. The Chinese had discovered iron by this time and used it extensively in farming and warfare; the Choson people were not able to match them. Yen became established in the territory vacated by Choson.
Meanwhile, much of what subsequently came to constitute China proper had been unified for the first time under Qin Shi Huangdi. Subsequently, Yen fell to the Qin state; the Qin Dynasty (221-207 B.C.) was in turn replaced by a new dynasty, the Han (206 B.C.- A.D. 220). In 195 B.C. a former officer of Yen took over the throne of Choson by trickery, after which he and his descendants ruled the kingdom for eighty years; but in 109-108 B.C. China attacked Choson and destroyed it as a political entity. The Han Chinese then ruled the territory north of the Han River as the Four Eastern Districts; the original territory of Choson became Lolang (or Nangnang in Korean). (North Korean historians have argued that the Lolang District was located more to the northwest of the Korean Peninsula, perhaps near Beijing. This theory, however, has not been universally accepted.) Until the Han period the Korean Peninsula had been a veritable Chinese colony. During some 400 years, Lolang, the core of the colony, had become a great center of Chinese art, philosophy, industry, and commerce. Many Chinese immigrated into the area; the influence of China extended beyond the territory it administered. The tribal states south of the Han River paid tribute to the Chinese and patterned much of their civilization and government after Chinese models.
In theory the Koreans, as subjects of the Japanese emperor, enjoyed the same status as the Japanese; but in fact the Japanese government treated the Koreans as a conquered people. Until 1921 they were not allowed to publish their own newspapers or to organize political or intellectual groups.
Nationalist sentiments gave rise to a Korean student demonstration in Japan, and on March 1, 1919, to a Proclamation of Independence by a small group of leaders in Seoul. With the consolidation of what became known as the March First Movement, street demonstrations led by Christian and Ch'ondogyo (a movement that evolved from Tonghak) groups erupted throughout the country to protest Japanese rule.
In the wake of the protest, Japan granted considerable latitude to Korea. As historians have noted, the ensuing intellectual and social ferment of the 1920s marked a seminal period in modern Korean history. Many developments of the period, including the organization of labor unions and other social and economic movements, had continuing influence into the postliberation period. In the 1930s, however, the ascendancy of the military in Japanese politics reversed the change. Particularly after 1937, when Japan launched the Second SinoJapanese War (1937-45) against China, the colonial government decided on a policy of mobilizing the entire country for the cause of the war. Not only was the economy reorganized onto a war footing, but the Koreans were to be totally assimilated as Japanese. The government also began to enlist Korean youths in the Japanese army as volunteers in 1938, and as conscripts in 1943. Worship at Shinto shrines became mandatory, and every attempt at preserving Korean identity was discouraged.
The Korean economy also underwent significant change. Japan's initial colonial policy was to increase agricultural production in Korea to meet Japan's growing need for rice. Japan had also begun to build large-scale industries in Korea in the 1930s as part of the empire-wide program of economic self-sufficiency and war preparation. Between 1939 and 1941, the manufacturing sector represented 29 percent of Korea's total economic production. The primary industries--agriculture, fishing, and forestry--occupied only 49.6 percent of total economic production during that period, in contrast to having provided 84.6 percent of total production between 1910 and 1912.
The economic development taking place under Japanese rule, however, brought little benefit to the Koreans. Virtually all industries were owned either by Japan-based corporations or by Japanese corporations in Korea . As of 1942, Korean capital constituted only 1.5 percent of the total capital invested in Korean industries. Korean entrepreneurs were charged interest rates 25 percent higher than their Japanese counterparts, so it was difficult for Korean enterprises to emerge. More and more farmland was taken over by the Japanese, and an increasing proportion of Korean farmers either became sharecroppers or migrated to Japan or Manchuria. As greater quantities of Korean rice were exported to Japan, per capita consumption of rice among the Koreans declined; between 1932 and 1936, per capita consumption of rice declined to half the level consumed between 1912 and 1916. Although the government imported coarse grains from Manchuria to augment the Korean food supply, per capita consumption of food grains in 1944 was 35 percent below that of 1912 to 1916.
Under Japanese rule, intellectual influences different from traditional Buddhist, Confucianist, and shamanistic beliefs flooded the country. Western-style painting was introduced, and literary trends, even among writers who emphasized themes of social protest and national independence, tended to follow Japanese and European models, particularly those developed during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The works of Russian, German, French, British, American, and Japanese authors were read by the more educated Koreans, and Korean writers increasingly adopted Western ideas and literary forms. Social and political themes were prominent. Tears of Blood, the first of the "new novels," published by Yi In-jik in serial form in a magazine in 1906, stressed the need for social reform and cultural enlightenment, following Western and Japanese models. Yi Kwang-su's The Heartless, published in 1917, stressed the need for mass education, Western science, and the repudiation of the old family and social system. Ch'ae Man-sik's Ready Made Life, published in 1934, protested the injustices of colonial society.
In the 1920s and 1930s, socialist ideas began to influence the development of literature. In 1925 left-wing artists, rejecting the romanticism of many contemporary writers, established the Korean Proletarian Artists' Federation, which continued until it was suppressed by Japanese authorities in 1935. One of the best representatives of this group was Yi Ki-yong, whose 1936 novel Home tells of the misery of villagers under Japanese rule and the efforts of the protagonist, a student, to organize them. Poets during the colonial period included Yi Sang-hwa, Kim So-wol, and Han Yong-un. But the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War marked a period of unprecedented repression in the cultural sphere by Japanese authorities, which continued until Korea's liberation in 1945.
From the late 1930s until 1945, the colonial government pursued a policy of assimilation whose primary goal was to force the Koreans to speak Japanese and to consider themselves Japanese subjects. In 1937 the Japanese governor general ordered that all instruction in Korean schools be in Japanese and that students not be allowed to speak Korean either inside or outside of school. In 1939 another decree "encouraged" Koreans to adopt Japanese names, and by the following year it was reported that 84 percent of all Korean families had done so. During the war years Korean-language newspapers and magazines were shut down. Belief in the divinity of the Japanese emperor was encouraged, and Shinto shrines were built throughout the country. Had Japanese rule not ended in 1945, the fate of indigenous Korean language, culture, and religious practices would have been extremely uncertain.
Japanese rule was harsh, particularly after the Japanese militarists began their expansionist drive in the 1930s. Internal Korean resistance, however, virtually ceased in the 1930s as the police and the military gendarmes imposed strict surveillance over all people suspected of subversive inclinations and meted out severe punishment against recalcitrants. Most Koreans opted to pay lip service to the colonial government. Others actively collaborated with the Japanese. The treatment of collaborators became a sensitive and sometimes violent issue during the years immediately following liberation.
The Korean culture has continued many of the traditions and events that came into their culture generations ago. These very special aspects are what make Korea what it is today. Korea was first inhabited by many primitive tribes. Many were ancestors of the Mongolian culture. These tribes moved East into new lands where they began their new era. Many of the people living in Korea today are related to these first settlers. As time went on these tribes united to form a single culture. Since the start of this culture the most important thing has always been the family.
All things are done with the families permission. The eldest in the house is considered the most wise, and therefore makes most of the decisions. This tradition was started years ago, and is still being used today. Every relative in the family that is of the same blood is referred to as ilga. This means one house. Another term that is continually heard is tongjok. This is the group of paternal relatives. These relatives are a very tight knit group that, in many cases, live together in one home. Only paternal relatives can be in the tongjok. Maternal relatives can never join this group. The tongjok is mainly controlled with the property of the head family. In other words, the oldest living relatives take care of this group. Officials are appointed, and the family has a type of small government running the show. These officials hold special meetings where they discuss things ranging from ancestral rights to repair of graves. The final decisions of these meetings are made by the oldest living male. This leader takes care of things like funeral planning, festivals, graveside rituals, and helps with daily life.
Koreans take great pride in their ancestry and never forget the dead. From an early age the children are taught to respect their elders and the people who have passed away. Shrines are constructed in honor of the deceased and are maintained by the tonjok. The shrines are kept on sacred grounds that are consistently kept up. When walking in Korea you may see an area with beautiful trees or shrubs in a pattern. This is probably the place where a family buries their dead. When a parent dies in a family the eldest son is in the most mourning. He walks around with a hat made of reeds and covers his face with a fan. He goes about his daily life, but refrains from meeting people and calls himself a sinful man. The way Korean people treat their dead is just one of the many interesting things these people believe in.
When a Korean couple wishes to be married, a great deal of things happen. First, some marriages are still arranged. This is mainly found in the upper class society of Korea. Wealthy families wish for their children to be married to a son or daughter of a wealthy family. This way the marriage is more of a union between families than a union between two people. Social standing is very important in Korea. They believe wealth will bring a long, happy life. The arranged marriage gets started when a person with a great deal of information is appointed to find a spouse for a families son or daughter. This person researches candidates and comes to a conclusion. The two people have a small time of dating before they are told to marry. If there is a connection, these two people will go on with the marriage. In recent years, marriages between two people of different social classes are becoming much more common, but it is not the best way to go in the eyes of many families.
Most families in urban families have about 4.8 people in them. This is just the immediate family not the extended. In rural areas the families are slightly larger with 5.3 people. All the families live either with each other or near each other. These groups of families are called a clan. If the families are all living in one home there can be up to 4 generations living together. The homes are built with heavy squared posts at each angle of the house. Huge beams are used to support rafters for the ceiling. There is a main building in the middle or sometimes a court. This is the center of the home and is furnished with decorations and many flowers. The men and women have separate rooms on opposite ends of the house. Men are never allowed to enter the womens' courtiers. This is a private place where a woman can be alone. Each room throughout the home are similar to little apartments. Windows are made of paper and are very fragile.
Most people are seen wearing jackets all year round. As the climate changes they either add padding or take some away. Both men and women can be seen wearing pants. Some women, however, enjoy wearing skirts. Males sometimes choose to wear a vest in place of the jacket. The most common colors of the Korean people are white and light blue. The land of Korea is ideal for growing rice and many vegetables. These two food groups make up much of the food consumed. They also enjoy eating fish and meat. Mullet or barley sometimes takes the place of rice. This is most common in the poorer families dishes. Korea is also known for its strong spices. Korean people enjoy flavoring their food with red peppers or garlic. Korean people enjoy sports much like other cultures. One of the most common for males is wrestling. Their style is very different from other cultures. The two wrestlers tie their right legs with a rope 2 feet long and kneel down in front of each other. With their left hand they hold the end of the rope and with their right hand they hold the clothes of the opponent. They get up and push and pull one another until one falls down and is beaten.
When the first night of the new year comes everyone hides their shoes. This is because they believe a ghost will come down and try on everyones shoes. If it finds a pair it likes it will take them. The owner of the shoes will then have bad luck for the whole year. The Korean culture is one of the oldest cultures known. These people have many beliefs and traditions that are still being used today. These traditions are what make these people who they are. Life, death, and their relatives are very important to them and this is seen in their every day life.
कोरियाई प्रायद्वीप पर उत्तर और दक्षिण कोरिया के संबंधों की वर्तमान स्थिति एक नए युग की भू-राजनीतिक प्रतिस्पर्धा का प्रतीक है। यह बदलाव वैश्...
