Saturday, 9 October 2010

Symposium discusses expansion of G20 roles

World-renowned scholars, business leaders, and high-ranking officials from international organizations and the Korean government gathered to attend the G20 Seoul International Symposium, which took place on September 28-29, at a hotel in southern Seoul.

There has been strong interest both domestically and internationally in the symposium, which was co-hosted by the state-run Korea Development Institute, the Brookings Institution, and the Dong-A Ilbo.

Speakers took part in in-depth discussions on the issues of regularization of the G20 summit meeting and the issue of development in developing countries. 

Scholars, business leaders, and high-ranking officials of international organizations and governments attended the G20 Seoul International Symposium, which took place on September 28-29, at a hotel in southern Seoul.

One of the most prominent speakers at the symposium was former Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin. He pointed out the limitations of the G8, while strongly advocating the expansion of the roles of G20.

The former Canadian Prime Minister has been widely regarded as a major supporter of the G20 since 1999, when he chaired the first G20 Finance Ministers' Meeting during his tenure as Canadian Finance Minister. In 2005, as Prime Minister, he suggested that the G20 meeting should be upgraded to summit status.

Professor Victor Murinde of the University of Birmingham, (left) addresses at the G20 Seoul International Symposium on Sep. 28 in Seoul. (Photo: Yonhap News)

Since the G8 does not include several key economic players like China, India, Brazil or Russia, he said the G8 cannot function as a global steering committee. He said the G20 system is more desirable, because more countries can participate in the decision-making process, in cooperation with a growing number of emerging economies.

The symposium's agenda also addressed issues on the agendas of the upcoming G20 Seoul Summit, such as managing global financial safety networks. Martin said the financial safety network is a good example of why the G20 is needed. Since Korea has first-hand experiences of financial crisis, the need for a financial safety network was reflected in the agendas of the G20 Seoul Summit.

Regularizing the role of the G20 was also discussed at the meeting, including the potential for executive offices. SaKong Il, Chief of the Presidential Committee for the G20 Seoul Summit, said building offices for the G20 was one of three ways to regularize the G20 suggested by the United Kingdom and Korea before the fourth G20 summit. He also said the role of the G20 as a global steering committee will be strengthened if the G20 Seoul Summit concludes successfully.

Former Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin (center) and SaKong Il, Chief of the Presidential Committee for the G20 Seoul Summit, (right) give interviews on Sep. 28 at the G20 Seoul International Symposium, which was held in Seoul.

At the conclusion of the first day, Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism Yu In-Chon held a luncheon for speakers at a hotel in southern Seoul. The luncheon attendees enjoyed watching performances of talchum, a traditional Korean mask dance, and geomungo, a six-stringed traditional Korean zither, arranged by the Korean Overseas Culture and Information Service of the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. In his celebratory speech, Minister Yu expressed his hope that the G20 Seoul Summit will be as fruitful as the harvest season itself.

On the second day, SaKong Il led a roundtable discussion on "The G20 as a Global Steering Committee beyond the Crisis?
source:Korea.net

Thursday, 7 October 2010

HINDUISM'S CHRIST


By Dr. Young Oon Kim
From World Religions, Vol. 2

The Avatar: Hinduism's Christ

Aldous Huxley, who - besides being a novelist and social critic - was a Vedanta enthusiast, believed that mankind has developed a "Perennial Philosophy." Though this philosophy is expressed by Christians, Muslims, Buddhists and Hindus in different ways, each religion incorporates the doctrine that God is incarnated in human form. For this Brittish writer there is a basic similarity between the Christian doctrine of the incarnate Christ and the Hindu idea of the Avatar. Both represent a descent and manifestation of God in human flesh.
There is no mention of this idea-in the early Vedic hymns of the Aryan conquerors and it plays no part in the mystical monism of the Upanishads. But by the time of the epic Mahabharata, belief that Vishnu appeared in material form more than once was part of popular Hinduism. The only debatable point was whether devotees of Vishnu recognised ten, twenty-two or even more avatars of the protective god. Basing their faith on a variety of sacred texts the Vishnaivas claimed that their favorite deity came to earth in the form of both animals and men. Vishnu was supposed to have lived as a swan, tortoise, fish, boar, half-lion half-man, and a dwarf. He also incarnated as
Rama, the princely hero of the Ramayama, and Krishna the dark-skinned lover of Indian cow-girls. They also believed Vishnu would reappear at the end of our age as the cosmic judge Kalki.
The Hindu faith in the avatar to come is of particular interest to eschatologically-minded Christians. According to the Mahabharata, Kalki will appear during the troubles which are to take place immediately before the end of our world. Born a Brahmin he will openly glorify Vishnu. Prior to ushering in a new age, he will destroy all evil; riding a white horse and brandishing a flaming sword, he will destroy thieves and foreigners. Public order will be restored and peace on earth will ensue. Having thus proved his ability to rule, Kalki will formally declare himself king of kings and perform the horse sacrifice expected of an emperor. Then he will give the whole earth to the Brahmins and retire to the forest to show the superiority of the contemplative life. Inspired by the presence of the avatar, men will imitate him.
After a careful study of Indian religion, one contemporary Christian theologian found twelve basic characteristics in the avatar doctrines: 1) in Hindu belief the avatar is real, a visible and fleshly descent of the divine to the terrestrial plane; 2) the human avatars are born in various ways but always through human parents; 3) their lives mingle divine and human qualities; 4) the avatars finally die; 5) there may be a historical basis for some of the Hindu avatars Rama, Krishna, Chaitanya, Ramakrishna, for example; 6) avatars are repeated: one appears whenever there is a catastrophic decline in righteousness; 7) one avatar differs from another in character, temperament and worth; 8) each comes with work to do: the restoration of harmony in human society and universe; 9) avatars are not world-renouncing, and constantly advocate the importance of action rather than contemplation alone; 10) avatars for Hindus provide "special revelation" as the self- manifestation of Godhead; 11) they reveal a personal rather than impersonal God; 12) avatars prove the existence of a God of grace, in Hindu eyes; as Ramanuja insisted, a man cannot maintain his existence without God and God cannot maintain Himself without man."
This theologian then concluded: "The Avatars of Hinduism lead up to Christ and they are valuable preparations for him. More easily than Jews or Greeks, Indians can understand the coming of God in human form. Yet this very ease has great dangers, and the casual way in which many modern Hindus consider Christ as just another Avatar deprives him of significance and challenge." Ramakrishna taught that the saviors of humanity are those who see God and are so anxious to share their happiness of divine vision that they voluntarily undergo the troubles of rebirth in order to lead a struggling humanity to its goal. An avatar serves as a human messenger of God, like the viceroy of a mighty monarch. When there is a disturbance in some distant province, the king sends his representative to quell it; likewise, when religion wanes in any part of the world, God sends His avatar to guard it. In such a way Christ, Krishna, Buddha, Chaitanya, etc. were incarnations of God, that is, extraordinary human beings who were entrusted with a divine commission." Gandhi held a slightly more critical view of Jesus. It was more than he could believe, he confessed, that Jesus was the only incarnate son of God or that one could go to heaven only by becoming a Christian. If God could have sons, all men were His sons. If Jesus was like God, then all of us are like God. He could not accept literally the notion that Jesus redeemed the world by his blood. He denied that Jesus was the most perfect man ever born and even as a martyr was surpassed by some Hindus. Rather than expecting India to develop one religion, wholly Christian, wholly Muslim or wholly Hindu, he wanted his nation to be widely tolerant with different faiths working side by side." Because Hindus believe in many avatars instead of a single incarnation, they feel their faith makes them far less bigoted than Christians.

The Coming Age of the Spirit

Those who criticize Hinduism for being other-worldly, life- negating and blind to the need for social reconstruction probably have never read the books of Aurobindo, one of modern India's two most celebrated philosophers of religion. After winning fame as a nationalist revolutionary, Aurobindo suddenly retired to an ashram at Pondicherry not because he had abandoned the cause of Indian independence but rather to work out a spiritual philosophy which would give substance to the nation when it won its freedom.
During World War I he published a series of essays explaining his theory about "the psychology of social development. As he saw the situation, man necessarily evolves through three stages. First comes an infra-rational period in which men act principally on the basis of their instincts, impulses and vital intuitions. The society they build is thus primarily the canalisation of responses to these needs and crystallised in a variety of social institutions. During this conventional age society tends to fix and formalise a system of rigid hierarchies. Education becomes bound to a traditional and unchangeable form. Authorities claim to be infallible. In later times, it appears to be a "golden age," because of its order, precise social architecture and admirable subordination of all its parts to a general scheme. Hence the Westerner's longing for the Middle Ages or the Hindu's admiration for the Vedic period.
But behind splendid facades such times were harsh ages with hidden evils. For Aurobindo, the medieval period in Europe and the Vedic age in India were stagnating societies floundering in the iron grip of conventionalism. Revolution was thus inevitable.
Revolt against the infra-rational stage produces an age of reason and individualism. Each man uses his reason to judge, destroy and recreate his institutions. The individual asserts his rights to develop himself and fulfil his life according to his own desire. He admits no limit to his liberty except to respect the same rights for others. Each man and nation has the inherent freedom to manage its own affairs or mismanage them without interference. This age of reason however inevitably results in a tragic conflict between nationalistic or imperialistic egoism and individual or national liberties. Consequently we witness the birth of a new idea of universalism or collectivism. And that is where we are now, states Aurobindo. The Age of Reason is visibly drawing to an end. During World War I he predicted the morning light of a new period in the human cycle. The Age of Protestantism, Revolt, Progress and Freedom is in an inescapable process of breakdown. Nevertheless, two ideas pro- duced by the rationalist period cannot be entirely eliminated. First, the future must preserve the democratic right of all persons to full development of their capabilities. Secondly, the individual is of value in himself. He is not merely a member of a pack, hive or ant hill, i.e., as in Fascism/Communism. Each soul requires freedom, space, and initiative though of course he must learn to accept the collectivity of his fellow-beings.
Aurobindo sees man approaching a third stage of his evolutionary development. We have moved beyond the instinctive to the rational, but must now step higher to the "supermental." Man is at present ready to develop a spiritual, supra-intellectual, intuitive outlook - "a gnostic consciousness." He must exceed himself, divinize his whole being, become a superman.
Only a spiritualised society can bring about the crucial harmony between individual and communal happiness. Using familiar Christian language, Aurobindo calls for "a new kind of theoc- racy, the kingdom of God upon earth, a theocracy which shall be the government of mankind by the Divine in the hearts and minds of men. For such a new age the superman must live in the free light of the intellect, and breathe the fresh air of higher ideals. The age to come requires wide intellectual curiosity, a cultivated aesthetic taste and an enlightened will.
Aurobindo carefully distinguished between what he hoped for and the ordinary Christian hope for the coming kingdom. "The trend of the Jewish nation which gave us the severe ethical religion of the Old Testament crude, conventional and barbarous enough in the Mosaic law, but rising to undeniable heights of moral exaltation when to the Law were added the Prophets, and finally exceeding itself and blossoming into a fine flower of spirituality in Judaic Christianity was dominated by the preoccupation of a terrestrial and ethical righteousness and the promised rewards of right worship and right doing, but innocent of science and philosophy, careless of knowledge, indifferent to beauty. A better symbol for the age of the superman is found in Hindu sacred literature. While in the age of Power, Vishnu descends as king and in the age of Balance, as the legislator or codifier of moral laws, in the final age that of Truth he comes as the Master of works manifest in the hearts of his creatures. Such is the kingdom to come, as we are beginning to see, when we find God not in a distant heaven but within ourselves and our society. Or as Aurobindo's widow put it in 1956, the manifestation of divinity (the Supramental) is no longer a promise, but a verifiable fact. Not only is it at work here, but the day will come when even the most blind and unwilling will be obliged to recognise it.

Quote from the Great Indian Poet Tagore about Korea:

"In the golden age of Asia
Korea was one of its lamp-bearess
and that lamp is waiting to be
lighted once again for the
illumination of the East."

Ref: Tagore and Korea by Kim Yang-shik (Poetess)

Sunday, 3 October 2010

Korea in UNESCO

 Korea was the 55th country to become a member of UNESCO, at the fifth session of the UNESCO General Conference held in Florence, Italy on 14 June 1950. It joined with the goals of preventing all forms of violence by fostering educational, scientific, and cultural solidarity. Ironically, only 11 days later it was propelled into the tragedy of the Korean War.

After suffering the ravages of a devastating war, Korea was in need of outside help. At that critical moment, UNESCO contributed to building a factory for the printing of primary school textbooks, which was a stepping-stone toward reconstructing Korea's educational system and starting the process of post-war rehabilitation. For this, Korea owes a debt of gratitude to UNESCO.

Korea has evolved into a model for development through the transformation
from a receiving to a contributing country. With this paradigmatic shift, Korea seeks to establish strategic action plans for effective participation in international institutions such as UNESCO. It desires to the live up to expectations of the international community and make of financial and diplomatic contributions that will help shape the universal values of human rights, sustainable development and a culture of peace.


The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade represents the Government of the Republic of Korea at UNESCO through its Permanent Delegation headed by the ambassador to France. UNESCO holds broad consultations regularly with the Permanent Delegations of its Member States on important matters concerning UNESCO's policies and its main programmes.


-USD 6,362,821(2.173%)


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Education for All / Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development
East Asian Biosphere Reserve Network / Ministry of Environment
Coastal and Island Biosphere Reserves in Asia-Pacific / Jeju Special Self-Governing Province
Intangible Cultural Heritage / Gangeung City
Cultural Heritage of Koguryo Kingdom in North Korea / Cultural Heritage Administration


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King Sejong Literacy Prize / Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade
International Arirang Prize / Ministry of Culture and Tourism (no longer being awarded)
Jikji Memory of the World Prize / Cheongju City


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Dr. KIM Hwan-suk, Member, COMEST(World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology),~ 2011
Dr. KWAK Kyul-Ho, Member, UNESCO-IHE(International Institute for Infrastructural Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering) Institute for Water Education, ~ 2011.6
Dr. HWANG Dae-jun, Governing Board Member, UNESCO IITE(UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education), ~2013
Dr. MAENG Gwang-ho, Member, IBC(International Bioethics Committee), ~2009
Former
Dr. SONG Sang-yong (Vice-Chair of World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology), ~2007
Dr. Sung Kyung-he, Governing Board Member, UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, ~2008.12


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Dr. HAN Sung-joo / Peace, Democracy and Human Rights at Korea University. (1995)
Dr. CHA In-suk / Philosophy at Seoul National University. (1997)
Dr. LEE Kyung-sook / Communication Technology for Women at Sookmyung Women's University (1998)


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Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1983)
Universal Copyright Conventions as revised at Paris on 24 July 1971, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI, Protocol I and Protocoal 2 (1987)
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1988)
Regional Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and Degrees in Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific (1989)
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (1997)
Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2005)
 

























Source:www.unesco.or.kr

कोरिया: संस्कृति और कला

प्राचीन चीनी ग्रंथों में, कोरिया के लिए 'के रूप में नदियों और सिल्क पर कढ़ाई पर्वत निर्दिष्ट 금수강산 है,  और' पूर्वी राष्ट्र की मर्यादा" 동방예의지국   7वीं और 8वीं शताब्दी के दौरान, सिल्क रोड कोरिया को अरब से जोड़ता था. 845 में, अरब व्यापारियों ने लिखा, "चीन के पार एक देश  जहां सोना प्रचुरता में है और जिसका नाम सिला है. मुसलमान, जो वहां गए, देश से सम्मोहित हो गए और वहां बसने के इच्छुक हो कर वहां से जाने के सभी विचार को त्याग दिया.








कोरियाई उत्सव अक्सर जीवंत रंगों को प्रदर्शित करते हैं, जिसके लिए मंगोलियाई प्रभाव को जिम्मेदार ठहराया गया है: गहरा लाल, पीला, और हरा रंग अक्सर पारंपरिक कोरियाई रूपांकनों को चिह्नित करता है. ये चमकीले रंग, कभी-कभी पारंपरिक पोशाक में देखे जाते हैं जिसे हनबोक कहते हैं.
कोरियाई संस्कृति की एक विशेषता उसकी उम्र की गणना प्रणाली है. जब कोई पैदा होता है तो उसे एक वर्ष की उम्र का माना जाता है, और उसकी उम्र, उसके जन्मदिन की सालगिरह के बजाय हर नए साल के दिन बढ़ती है. इस प्रकार, 31 दिसंबर को जन्मे शिशु, अपनी पैदाइशी के अगले दिन दो वर्ष की आयु के हो जाएंगे. तदनुसार, एक कोरियाई व्यक्ति की घोषित उम्र, पश्चिमी परंपरा में व्यक्त उसकी उम्र से एक या दो वर्ष ज्यादा हो जाएगी.



कोरिया: एक झलक

कोरिया- एक सभ्यता और पूर्व में एकीकृत राष्ट्र जो वर्तमान में दो राज्यों में विभाजित है. कोरियाई प्रायद्वीप पर स्थित, इसकी सीमाएं पश्चिमोत्तर में चीन, पूर्वोत्तर में रूस, और जापान से कोरिया जलसन्धि द्वारा पूर्व में अलग है.
कोरिया 1948 तक संयुक्त था; उस समय इसे दक्षिण कोरिया और उत्तर कोरिया में विभाजित कर दिया गया. दक्षिण कोरिया, आधिकारिक तौर पर कोरिया गणराज्य, एक पूंजीवादी, लोकतांत्रिक और विकसित देश है, जिसकी संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ, WTO, OECD और G-20 प्रमुख अर्थव्यवस्थाओं में सदस्यता है. उत्तर कोरिया, आधिकारिक तौर पर लोकतांत्रिक जनवादी कोरिया गणराज्य, किम II-सुंग द्वारा स्थापित एक एकल पार्टी कम्युनिस्ट देश है और सम्प्रति उनके बेटे किम जोंग-इल द्वारा शासित है. उत्तर कोरिया की वर्तमान में संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ में सदस्यता है.
पुरातत्व और भाषाई सबूत यह सुझाते हैं कि कोरियाई लोगों की उत्पत्ति दक्षिण-मध्य साइबेरिया के अल्टायाक भाषा बोलने वाले प्रवासियों में हुई थी, जो नवपाषाण युग से कांस्य युग तक लगातार बहाव में प्राचीन कोरिया में बसते गए.  2 शताब्दी ई.पू. में, चीनी लेखन प्रणाली (कोरियाई में "हंजा"), और 4 शताब्दी ई. में बौद्ध धर्म को अपनाने के कारण कोरिया के तीन साम्राज्यों पर गहरा प्रभाव पड़ा. कोरिया बाद में इन सांस्कृतिक अग्रिमों का एक संशोधित संस्करण पर जापान को पारित कर दिया,
गोरियो राजवंश के बाद से, कोरिया, एक एकल सरकार द्वारा शासित रहा और गोरियो वंश पर 13वीं शताब्दी में मंगोल हमलों और 16वीं शताब्दी में जोसियो वंश पर जापानी हमलों के बावजूद, 20वीं सदी तक इसने राजनैतिक और सांस्कृतिक स्वतंत्रता बनाए रखी. 1377 में, कोरिया ने जिक्जी पेश किया, दुनिया का सबसे पुराना मौजूद दस्तावेज़ जिसे चल धातु प्रकार से मुद्रित किया गया.  15वीं सदी में, कछुए जहाज तैनात किये गए और राजा सेजोंग महान ने कोरियाई वर्णमाला हंगुल प्रख्यापित किया.
जोसियो राजवंश के उत्तरार्द्ध के दौरान, कोरिया की एकान्तवादी नीति ने इसके लिए पश्चिमी उपनाम "साधु साम्राज्य" अर्जित किया. 19वीं सदी के उत्तरार्ध तक यह देश जापान और यूरोप की औपनिवेशिक वृत्ति का लक्ष्य बना. 1910 में कोरिया पर जबरन जापान द्वारा कब्जा कर लिया गया और यह कब्ज़ा, अगस्त 1945 में द्वितीय विश्व युद्ध के अंत तक बना रहा.
1945 में, सोवियत संघ और संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका, कोरिया में जापानी सैनिकों के आत्मसमर्पण और निरस्त्रीकरण पर सहमत हुए; सोवियत संघ ने 38वें समानांतर के पूर्व में जापानी हथियारों के समर्पण को स्वीकार किया और अमेरिका ने उसके दक्षिण में. मित्र राष्ट्रों की सेना द्वारा यह छोटा निर्णय जल्द ही दो महाशक्तियों द्वारा कोरिया के विभाजन का आधार बन गया, जिसको, कोरियाई आजादी की शर्तों पर सहमत होने में उनकी असमर्थता ने और बढ़ा दिया. शीत युद्ध के इन दो प्रतिद्वंद्वीयों ने इसके बाद अपनी विचारधाराओं से सहानुभूति रखने वाली सरकारों की स्थापना की, जिसने कोरिया के दो राजनीतिक सत्ता के मौजूदा विभाजन को प्रेरित किया: उत्तर कोरिया और दक्षिण कोरिया.
कोरिया, कोरियाई इतिहास के गोरियो काल से लिया गया है जो वापस गोगुरियो के प्राचीन राज्य को निर्दिष्ट करता है. मध्य पूर्व के व्यापारी इसे कौली (चीनी उच्चारण से) बुलाते थे, जिसकी वर्तनी बाद में Corea और Korea हो गई. अंग्रेजी संदर्भों में अब सामान्यतः, उत्तर और दक्षिण कोरिया, दोनों के द्वारा कोरिया प्रयोग किया जाता है. जर्मनिक भाषाओं में एक K का अक्सर इस्तेमाल किया जाता है, जबकि रोमन भाषाओं में एक C पसंद करते हैं.
कोरियाई भाषा में, सम्पूर्ण रूप से कोरिया को दक्षिण कोरिया में हान-गुक के रूप में और उत्तर कोरिया में चोसोन के रूप में निर्दिष्ट करते हैं. दूसरा नाम, रोमन रूप में जोसियन, जोसियन वंश से है और उससे पहले के गोजोसियन से. "द लैंड ऑफ़ द मॉर्निंग काम" (सुबह की शांति का देश), एक अंग्रेजी भाषा से प्राप्त उपनाम है जो आंशिक रूप से जोसियन के लिए हंजा अक्षरों से लिया गया है.

इतिहास


प्रागितिहास और गोजोसियन



उत्तर अमेरिका की कोरियाई अकादमी ने कोरिया में एक स्टोन सिटी स्थल पर लावा में 100,000 ई.पू. के करीब के प्राचीन मानव जीवाश्मों की खोज की. प्रतिदीप्त और उच्च चुंबकीय विश्लेषण से संकेत मिलता है ज्वालामुखी जीवाश्मों के रूप में जल्दी के रूप में 300.000 ई.पू. से हो सकता है. सर्वश्रेष्ठ संरक्षित कोरियाई बर्तनों 10,000 ई.पू. के आसपास paleolithic बार वापस चला जाता है, और नवपाषाण काल 6000 ई.पू. के आसपास शुरू होती है.
गोजोसियन की स्थापना की किंवदंती, स्वर्ग का एक वंशज, दंगुन का वर्णन करती है जिसने 2333 ई. पू. में इस राज्य की स्थापना की. पुरातत्व और समकालीन लिखित रिकॉर्ड से संकेत मिलता है कि यह दीवार युक्त शहरों के एक संघ से एक केंद्रीकृत साम्राज्य में, 7वीं और 4थी शताब्दी ई.पू. के बीच में विकसित हुआ.
मूल राजधानी हो सकता है मंचूरिया-कोरिया की सीमा पर रही हो, लेकिन बाद में उसे आज के प्योंगयांग, उत्तरी कोरिया में स्थानांतरित कर दिया गया. 108 ई.पू. में, चीनी हान राजवंश ने विमान जोसियन को हराया और लिओनिंग और उत्तरी कोरियाई प्रायद्वीप के क्षेत्र में चार कमान स्थापित किये. 75 ई.पू., में उनमें से तीन कमान गिर गए, लेकिन लेलांग कमान 313 में गोगुरिओ के अधीन होने से पहले तक बाद के चीनी राजवंशों के लिए सांस्कृतिक और आर्थिक आदान प्रदान का एक केन्द्र बन रहा.

आद्य तीन साम्राज्य


आद्य तीन साम्राज्यों की अवधि, जिसे कभी-कभी अनेक राज्यों का काल कहा जाता है, वह आरंभिक भाग है जिसे आमतौर पर तीन साम्राज्यों का 
काल कहा जाता है, गोजोसियन के पतन के बाद लेकिन गोगुरिओ, बैक्जे और सिला के पूर्ण राज्यों के रूप में विकास से पहले.
यह काल, गोजोसियन के पूर्व राज्य क्षेत्रों से कई राज्यों के उदय का साक्षी बना. बुयिओ, आज के उत्तरी कोरिया और दक्षिणी मंचूरिया में पनपा, 2री शताब्दी BCE से 494 तक. इसके अवशेष को गोगुरियो ने 494 में समाविष्ट कर लिया, और कोरिया के तीन साम्राज्य में से दो, गोगुरियो और बैक्जे, दोनों ने स्वयं को उसका उत्तराधिकारी माना. उत्तरी कोरिया के ओक्जियो और डोंग्ये, अंत में बढ़ते गोगुरियो में समाहित हो गए.
कोरियाई प्रायद्वीप के दक्षिणी भाग में स्थित, सम्हन, तीन राज्यसंघ महन, जिन्हन, और बिओनहन को संदर्भित करता है. महन सबसे बड़ा था और इसमें 54 राज्य शामिल थे. बिओनहन और जिन्हन, दोनों ही बारह राज्यों से बने थे, जिससे सम्हन में कुल मिलाकर 78 राज्य शामिल हुए. ये तीन राज्यसंघ अंततः बैक्जे, सिला और गया में विकसित हुए.

तीन साम्राज्य



कोरिया के तीन साम्राज्य (गोगुरियो, सिला, और बैक्जे) ने साझा काल के दौरान प्रायद्वीप और मंचूरिया के हिस्सों पर प्रभाव जमाया. आर्थिक और सैन्य, दोनों ही रूप से उन्होंने एक दूसरे से होड़ ली.
गोगुरियो ने बुयिओ, ओक्जियो, डोंग्ये और अन्य राज्यों को पूर्व गोजोसियन राज्यक्षेत्र में एकजुट किया.  गोगुरियो सबसे प्रभावशाली शक्ति थी; यह पांचवीं शताब्दी में अपने चरम पर पहुंचा, जब ग्वांगेटो महान और उसके बेटे जन्ग्सु का शासन लगभग सम्पूर्ण मंचूरिया और मंगोलिया के भीतरी हिस्से में विस्तृत हुआ और बैक्जे से सियोल क्षेत्र ले लिया. ग्वांगेटो और जन्ग्सु ने अपने काल के दौरान बैक्जे और सिला को अपने अधीन किया. 7वीं सदी के बाद, गोगुरियो चीन के सुई और तांग राजवंश के साथ निरंतर युद्ध में था.
आधुनिक समय के सिओल के आसपास स्थापित, दक्षिण-पश्चिमी साम्राज्य बैक्जे ने, 4थी सदी में अपनी शक्ति की चरम अवस्था के दौरान प्योंगयांग के आगे तक विस्तार किया. इसने महन के सभी राज्यों को समाविष्ट कर लिया और एक केंद्रीकृत सरकार बनाते हुए पश्चिमी कोरियाई प्रायद्वीप के अधिकांश हिस्से को अधीन कर लिया (ग्योंगी, चुंगचीओंग, और जिओला के आधुनिक प्रांतों के साथ-साथ ह्वांगहे और गांगवोन का हिस्सा). बैक्जे ने अपने क्षेत्र के विस्तार के दौरान चीनी संस्कृति और प्रौद्योगिकी को दक्षिणी राजवंशों के साथ संपर्क के माध्यम से हासिल किया. ऐतिहासिक प्रमाणों से पता चलता है कि जापानी संस्कृति, कला, और भाषा, खुद बैक्जे और कोरिया राज्यों से प्रभावित थी. पुरातात्विक खोजों ने कई अनुमानों की पुष्टि की है लेकिन व्यापक जांच को अक्सर जापानी सरकार द्वारा प्रतिबंधित किया गया है और जिसे आम तौर पर सरकार द्वारा नियुक्त समूहों द्वारा संचालित किया जाता है. 
हालांकि बाद के रिकॉर्ड का दावा है कि दक्षिण-पूर्व में सिला, तीन साम्राज्यों में सबसे पुराना था, अब यह माना जाता है कि विकसित होने वाला यह आखिरी साम्राज्य था. 2री शताब्दी तक, सिला, आसपास के राज्यों को प्रभावित और कब्जा करते हुए एक बड़े राज्य के रूप में अस्तित्व में रहा. सिला ने प्रभुत्व हासिल करना शुरू किया जब 562 CE में इसने गया संघ पर कब्जा कर लिया. गया संघ, बैक्जे और सिला के बीच स्थित था. कोरिया के तीन साम्राज्य, अक्सर एक दूसरे के साथ युद्ध करते रहते थे और सिला को अक्सर बैक्जे और गोगुरियो के दबाव का सामना करना पड़ा लेकिन कई बार सिला भी प्रायद्वीप पर प्रभुत्व हासिल करने के लिए बैक्जे और गोगुरियो के साथ मिल गया.
660 में, सिला के मुइओल राजा ने अपनी सेनाओं को बैक्जे पर हमला करने का आदेश दिया. तांग बलों की सहायता से, जनरल किम यू-शिन (गिम यू-सिन), ने बैक्जे पर विजय प्राप्त की. 661 में, सिला और तांग ने गोगुरियो पर चढ़ाई की लेकिन पीछे धकेल दिए गए. मुयोल के पुत्र और जनरल किम के भतीजे, राजा मुन्मु ने 667 में एक और अभियान शुरू किया और गोगुरियो का अगले वर्ष पतन हुआ.


उत्तर दक्षिण राज्य काल

5वीं, 6वीं, और 7वीं सदी में सिला का प्रभुत्व धीरे-धीरे कोरियाई प्रायद्वीप को पार करने लगा. सिला पहले बगल गया महासंघ कब्जा कर लिया. 660 तक, सिला ने बैक्जे को और बाद में गोगुरियो को जीतने के लिए, चीन के तांग राजवंश के साथ गठबंधन किया. चीनी सेना को पीछे धकेलने के बाद, सिला ने आंशिक रूप से प्रायद्वीप को एकीकृत किया, और एक ऐसी अवधि शुरू हुई जिसे अक्सर एकीकृत सिला कहा जाता है.
उत्तर में, गोगुरियो के पूर्व जनरल डे जोयोंग ने अपने नेतृत्व में गोगुरियो शरणार्थियों के एक समूह को मंचूरिया के जिलिन क्षेत्र में लाया और गोगुरियो के उत्तराधिकारी के रूप में बाल्हे (698-926) की स्थापना की. अपने चरम पर, बाल्हे की सीमा, उत्तरी मंचूरिया से आधुनिक समय के कोरिया के उत्तरी प्रांतों तक विस्तृत हुई. बाल्हे को 926 में खितान द्वारा नष्ट कर दिया गया.
एकीकृत सिला, 9वीं शताब्दी के उत्तरार्ध में बिखर गया, और अशान्तप्रिय बाद के तीन साम्राज्य की अवधि (892-935) के लिए मार्ग प्रशस्त किया. गोरियो ने बाद के तीन साम्राज्यों को एकीकृत किया और बाल्हे शरणार्थियों को समाविष्ट किया


Korean Dictionary For Vocabulary

Annyong hashimnigga! Annyung! gamsa hamnida! You might wonder what these foreign words mean. If you are Korean, you know that annyong hashimnigga means hello, annyung means goodbye, and gamsa hamnida means thank you. Learning the Korean language is a great idea if you have a lot of Korean colleagues, you have a Korean heritage but can’t read or write in the language, or you plan to work or travel in Korea. Understanding some basic Korean language would aid you better understand the Korean belief, culture and value. The fact is the language is simple to learn if you will put some time into it. A great method to begin learning about the language is through aKorean English dictionary. Korean English dictionaries give English meaning of typical Korean phrases and vice versa. With Korean English dictionaries, you would surely learn to speak and write the language. Such dictionaries can be used as a Korean translator. They can interpret words from English language to Korean language as well as from Korean to English. The dictionaries also show the words the way they are written in Korea. This is the key if you also want to learn how to write in Hangul. Another good thing with Korean English dictionaries is they guide you on the correct pronunciation of Korean words. Understanding how to properly say Korean phrases could help you become more confident in speaking the language. About 78 million of people speak the language. Korean is not only the official language in South and North Korea, but also in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in Northeastern China. It is also spreading across the world because a lot of Koreans are migrating in other parts of the world including in the United States, Europe and other Asian countries. The language is very rich in Korean vocabulary. There are so many new phrases and words to learn. If this is your first time to learn a foreign language, the task may be difficult. But, nothing is impossible if you will put your heart into it you just need some patience and commitment. There are so many methods to startlearning Korean. Aside from consulting an online dictionary, you can enroll in a Korean language school near your place. For beginners, the best idea is to first use online Korean English dictionaries in order to learn the basic words. If you just want to learn some few words, the dictionary is the best option. Aside from convenience, using online Korean English dictionaries cost less compared to when you actually enroll in a foreign language program. More easily, you can already learn Korean using the web, and will eventually be able to use it to talk with your Korean employers.
source:everything you wanted to know

Intel to invest in S.Korea wireless broadband venture

The investment unit of US technology giant Intel said Thursday it would pump 20 million dollars into a South Korean wireless broadband joint venture. 
      
       The move is expected to accelerate wireless services in South Korea, amid growing demand for smartphones and other multifunctional devices.
      
       The WiBro joint venture involves South Korean telecoms giant KT Corp, Samsung Electronics and Kookmin Bank Investment.
      
       WiBro, which allows faster data transfer and a higher degree of mobility, is a version of the WiMAX technology offered by South Korean telecoms operators from 2006.
      
       Intel Capital said its money would be used to speed up deployment of leading-edge wireless broadband networks in South Korea.
      
       The investment strengthens "our WiMAX efforts in the Asia-Pacific region, arguably the fastest-growing wireless broadband area," and specifically helps KT expand its offering, Intel Capital president Arvind Sodhani said in a statement.
      
 
     From Friday South Korean customers can buy laptops and netbooks with Intel's chipsets supporting WiMAX services, allowing high-speed Internet access without plug-in USB modems or wireless pocket routers.
      
       The devices will enable users to enjoy wireless connectivity in countries and cities that also have compatible WiMAX networks.
      
       KT plans to begin its WiBro service in five major cities and expressways and expand its coverage to 85 percent of the population by next year.
source:Online Shopping City

कोरियाई प्रायद्वीप का बदलता भू-राजनीतिक परिदृश्य

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